List of English and British Monarchs Part 1: Saxon and Danish Kings
Saxon Kings
Egbert (r. 802-19)
Ethelwulf
Ethelbert
Ethelred I
Alfred the Great
Edward the Elder
Athelstan the Glorious
Edmund I
Edred
Edwy the Fair
Edgar the Peaceable
Edward the Martyr
Ethelred II
Sweyn of Denmark
Edmund II Ironside
Danish Kings
Canute
Hardicanute
Harold I Harefoot
Saxon Kings
Edward the Confessor
Harold II
England, Britain, Great Britain, United Kingdom, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Anglo-Saxons, Celts, Danes, Scandinavians, Vikings, Norse, Canute, Normans, Norsemen, Wessex, Sussex, London, Thames River, Normandy, Brittany, France, Paris, Ile de France, Romans, Welsh, Wales, Scotland, Scots, Gaelic, Irish, Ireland, Manx, Isle of Man, British, Edward the Confessor, Harold II, Canute, Edmund II, Alfred the Great, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Battle of Hastings
Sunday, October 31, 2010
Thursday, October 28, 2010
An overview of French speaking countries
> FRENCH SPEAKING EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
(1) France
The French language originated in France. French developed out of the vulgar Latin spoken in the province of Roman Gaul. Originally the precursor to modern standard French was only spoken in the northern parts of the country, especially around Paris. In other parts of the country, closely related dialects like Provencal and Picard, or completely separate languages like Basque and Breton, were spoken. But the use of standard French increased over time at the expense of the regional dialects and languages. Today the vast majority of the people in France use French as a first language.
(2) Belgium
Belgium’s three official languages are French, Dutch and German. Slightly more then half of its population speaks Dutch, while slightly less than half speak French.
(3) Switzerland
French is one of four official languages in Switzerland. French is the second most widely spoken language in the country, after German.
(4) Monaco
French is the official and most widely spoken language of the tiny nation of Monaco.
(5) Andorra
French is an official language in the small nation of Andorra, which is located on the French-Spanish border. The language is only spoken as a first language by a minority of the population, however.
(6) Luxembourg
French is an official language in Luxembourg, a country lying on the Belgium-Germany border. Like Andorra, however, only a minority use it as a first language.
> FRENCH SPEAKING COUNTRIES and TERRITORIES IN THE AMERICAS
(1) Canada
French is one of two official languages in Canada, the other official language being English. French is spoken by the majority of people in the province of Quebec. It is also spoken by significant minorities in the provinces of Ontario and New Brunswick.
(2) Haiti
French is the official language of Haiti. In everyday life, however, Haitian Creole is used. Although Haitian Creole’s vocabulary is largely derived from French, it is unintelligible with standard French.
(3) United States
Cajun French is spoken by a few thousand people in southern Louisiana and western Mississippi. French is spoken in the northeastern United States by French Canadian immigrants or their descendants.
(4) French overseas territories
French overseas territories in the Western Hemisphere include the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, French Guiana, Guadeloupe and Martinique. St. Pierre and Miquelon are small islands off the coast of Canada. French Guiana is in South America. Guadeloupe and Martinique are Caribbean islands. In Martinique, Guadeloupe and French Guiana French-based Creoles are spoken.
(5) the Caribbean
French-based Creoles are spoken on some Caribbean islands including St. Lucia, Dominica, Trinidad, and Grenada. English, however, is the official language on all of these islands.
> FRENCH SPEAKING COUNTRIES and TERRITORIES IN ASIA and THE PACIFIC
(1) South and Southeast Asia
French is spoken as a second language in Cambodia and other parts of southeast Asia. A few thousand people in Puducherry, India use the language.
(2) French Polynesia
French Polynesia is an overseas possession of France. It is made up of several islands scattered across the South Pacific ocean. The most famous of these islands is probably Tahiti. French is the official language of French Polynesia, but local Polynesian languages are also spoken. On the island of New Caledonia, off the coast of Australia, people of French origin (known as Caldoches) speak French as a first language. People of Indigenous origin (known as Kanaks) speak Melanesian languages. French and Wallisian (or Uvean) are spoken on the islands of Wallis and Futuna.
> FRENCH SPEAKING COUNTRIES IN AFRICA
The French language is used mainly in African countries that were former French colonies.
(1) North Africa
French is spoken in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia
(2) West Africa
French is an official language throughout much of West Africa. Senegal, Mali, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Cote D’Ivoire (Ivory Coast), Niger, Togo, Benin, Chad and Cameroon all recognize it as an official language. In Cameroon....
Read the full article here
(1) France
The French language originated in France. French developed out of the vulgar Latin spoken in the province of Roman Gaul. Originally the precursor to modern standard French was only spoken in the northern parts of the country, especially around Paris. In other parts of the country, closely related dialects like Provencal and Picard, or completely separate languages like Basque and Breton, were spoken. But the use of standard French increased over time at the expense of the regional dialects and languages. Today the vast majority of the people in France use French as a first language.
(2) Belgium
Belgium’s three official languages are French, Dutch and German. Slightly more then half of its population speaks Dutch, while slightly less than half speak French.
(3) Switzerland
French is one of four official languages in Switzerland. French is the second most widely spoken language in the country, after German.
(4) Monaco
French is the official and most widely spoken language of the tiny nation of Monaco.
(5) Andorra
French is an official language in the small nation of Andorra, which is located on the French-Spanish border. The language is only spoken as a first language by a minority of the population, however.
(6) Luxembourg
French is an official language in Luxembourg, a country lying on the Belgium-Germany border. Like Andorra, however, only a minority use it as a first language.
> FRENCH SPEAKING COUNTRIES and TERRITORIES IN THE AMERICAS
(1) Canada
French is one of two official languages in Canada, the other official language being English. French is spoken by the majority of people in the province of Quebec. It is also spoken by significant minorities in the provinces of Ontario and New Brunswick.
(2) Haiti
French is the official language of Haiti. In everyday life, however, Haitian Creole is used. Although Haitian Creole’s vocabulary is largely derived from French, it is unintelligible with standard French.
(3) United States
Cajun French is spoken by a few thousand people in southern Louisiana and western Mississippi. French is spoken in the northeastern United States by French Canadian immigrants or their descendants.
(4) French overseas territories
French overseas territories in the Western Hemisphere include the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, French Guiana, Guadeloupe and Martinique. St. Pierre and Miquelon are small islands off the coast of Canada. French Guiana is in South America. Guadeloupe and Martinique are Caribbean islands. In Martinique, Guadeloupe and French Guiana French-based Creoles are spoken.
(5) the Caribbean
French-based Creoles are spoken on some Caribbean islands including St. Lucia, Dominica, Trinidad, and Grenada. English, however, is the official language on all of these islands.
> FRENCH SPEAKING COUNTRIES and TERRITORIES IN ASIA and THE PACIFIC
(1) South and Southeast Asia
French is spoken as a second language in Cambodia and other parts of southeast Asia. A few thousand people in Puducherry, India use the language.
(2) French Polynesia
French Polynesia is an overseas possession of France. It is made up of several islands scattered across the South Pacific ocean. The most famous of these islands is probably Tahiti. French is the official language of French Polynesia, but local Polynesian languages are also spoken. On the island of New Caledonia, off the coast of Australia, people of French origin (known as Caldoches) speak French as a first language. People of Indigenous origin (known as Kanaks) speak Melanesian languages. French and Wallisian (or Uvean) are spoken on the islands of Wallis and Futuna.
> FRENCH SPEAKING COUNTRIES IN AFRICA
The French language is used mainly in African countries that were former French colonies.
(1) North Africa
French is spoken in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia
(2) West Africa
French is an official language throughout much of West Africa. Senegal, Mali, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Cote D’Ivoire (Ivory Coast), Niger, Togo, Benin, Chad and Cameroon all recognize it as an official language. In Cameroon....
Read the full article here
The rise of Africa's Songhai Empire
In the Western Sudan, three major African states flourished in the pre-colonial era. The shadowy kingdom of Ghana, not to be confused with the modern Republic of Ghana, was the oldest of the three. The Malinke Empire, made famous by the wealth of its legendary ruler Mansa Musa, succeeded Ghana (*see notes [1]). The last of the great kingdoms of this region was the Songhai Empire, which flourished from the 15th to late 16th century.
The Songhai Empire was named for the Songhai people who founded it. The Songhai traditionally lived along the Niger River in what is now the Republic of Niger and the Republic of Mali, as far west as Lake Debo. Early in Songhai history, a town named Kukiya was established as the capital of the Songhai kingdom. The first dynasty to rule the Songhai kingdom was the Dya dynasty. As the Songhai kingdom became involved in the trans-Saharan trade, the town of Gao, north of Kukiya, emerged as an major trading center. Because of the trans-Saharan trade, the Songhai kingdom became known to Arab writers, who referred it as “Kawkaw”.
In the 13th century the expanding Malinke Empire gained control over the town of Gao, thereby capturing the trade routes that formerly belonged to the Songhai. The Songhai heartland eventually also came under Mandingo rule, although it was only a peripheral part of the empire. The Songhai revolted around 1275 when the Malinke Empire was facing internal difficulties. This revolt was led by a man named Ali Kolon (or Ali Golom). He became the founder of a new Songhai dynasty, the Sunni dynasty, which replaced the former Dya dynasty. From this time forward the title “Sunni” or “Shi” was adopted by succeeding members of the dynasty. After enjoying a brief period of independence, however, the Songhai were reconquered by the Malinke.
By the beginning of the 15th century the Malinke Empire was again in a state of decline. The eastern provinces, including the Songhai areas, slipped out of Malinke control. Around 1420 the Songhai king Sunni Muhammad Da’o was powerful enough to raid territory that was still controlled by the declining Malinke Empire. Songhai expansion began under Sunni Sulayman Dandi (or Salman Dama, died 1464), who conquered the kingdom of Mema. Dandi’s successor was one of the most well-known Songhai rulers, Sunni Ali the Great (ruled 1464-1492). Sunni Ali, also known as Ali Ber, is generally considered to be the founder of the Songhai Empire. Sunni Ali led a series of military campaigns which expanded Songhai territory. Early campaigns, from 1467-1470, focused on pacifying the Tuareg of the southern Sahara. Sunni Ali later had to turn his attention to the Mossi kingdom of Yatenga to the south, which had been raiding the Niger River area. Sunni Ali drove out the Mossi who had occupied the Baghana region in 1483. Despite leading at least three separate expeditions against the Mossi, however, Sunni Ali was never able to completely remove this threat.
In the 1470s, Sunni Ali was able to capture the important trading town of Jenne (or Djenne). From Jenne, Sunni Ali attacked the remnants of the Malinke Empire to the west. These areas became tributaries of the Songhai Empire. Other campaigns were fought against Fula and Dogon tribes. Sunni Ali died on his way home from an expedition against the Fula. The historical sources disagree on the circumstances of his death. One scholar says that he ‘died suddenly’. Another says he drowned in a flooded river; more recent historians find this implausible because his death occurred in the wrong season for a river to be flooded. Oral traditions claim that Sunni Ali was assassinated by his nephew Mamar, the son of his sister Kassey. These sources say that at the time, Mamar was a provincial governor. Mamar would later go on to become Askia Muhammad I.
Sunni Ali was succeeded by his son Sunni Baru (or Abu Bakr Da’u). Sunni Baru’s succession, however, was contested by the man who would become Askia Muhammad I. The sources provide contesting accounts of Askia Muhammad’s ancestry. Some sources, as mentioned above, claim that he was the nephew of Sunni Ali and the man who killed the former ruler. Arabic sources say that his ancestors were from Sila or Futa Toro, which suggests that he was of either Soninke or Tukulor descent.
Askia Muhammad seems to have attempted to launch a coup against Sunni Baru. When that failed, he managed to raise an army, with the support of at least one ranking general in the Empire. Sunni Baru as raised an army. Askia Muhammad’s forces prevailed in April 1493, making him the new ruler of the Empire.
As ruler, Askia Muhammad continued the military campaigns of...
Read the full article here
The Songhai Empire was named for the Songhai people who founded it. The Songhai traditionally lived along the Niger River in what is now the Republic of Niger and the Republic of Mali, as far west as Lake Debo. Early in Songhai history, a town named Kukiya was established as the capital of the Songhai kingdom. The first dynasty to rule the Songhai kingdom was the Dya dynasty. As the Songhai kingdom became involved in the trans-Saharan trade, the town of Gao, north of Kukiya, emerged as an major trading center. Because of the trans-Saharan trade, the Songhai kingdom became known to Arab writers, who referred it as “Kawkaw”.
In the 13th century the expanding Malinke Empire gained control over the town of Gao, thereby capturing the trade routes that formerly belonged to the Songhai. The Songhai heartland eventually also came under Mandingo rule, although it was only a peripheral part of the empire. The Songhai revolted around 1275 when the Malinke Empire was facing internal difficulties. This revolt was led by a man named Ali Kolon (or Ali Golom). He became the founder of a new Songhai dynasty, the Sunni dynasty, which replaced the former Dya dynasty. From this time forward the title “Sunni” or “Shi” was adopted by succeeding members of the dynasty. After enjoying a brief period of independence, however, the Songhai were reconquered by the Malinke.
By the beginning of the 15th century the Malinke Empire was again in a state of decline. The eastern provinces, including the Songhai areas, slipped out of Malinke control. Around 1420 the Songhai king Sunni Muhammad Da’o was powerful enough to raid territory that was still controlled by the declining Malinke Empire. Songhai expansion began under Sunni Sulayman Dandi (or Salman Dama, died 1464), who conquered the kingdom of Mema. Dandi’s successor was one of the most well-known Songhai rulers, Sunni Ali the Great (ruled 1464-1492). Sunni Ali, also known as Ali Ber, is generally considered to be the founder of the Songhai Empire. Sunni Ali led a series of military campaigns which expanded Songhai territory. Early campaigns, from 1467-1470, focused on pacifying the Tuareg of the southern Sahara. Sunni Ali later had to turn his attention to the Mossi kingdom of Yatenga to the south, which had been raiding the Niger River area. Sunni Ali drove out the Mossi who had occupied the Baghana region in 1483. Despite leading at least three separate expeditions against the Mossi, however, Sunni Ali was never able to completely remove this threat.
In the 1470s, Sunni Ali was able to capture the important trading town of Jenne (or Djenne). From Jenne, Sunni Ali attacked the remnants of the Malinke Empire to the west. These areas became tributaries of the Songhai Empire. Other campaigns were fought against Fula and Dogon tribes. Sunni Ali died on his way home from an expedition against the Fula. The historical sources disagree on the circumstances of his death. One scholar says that he ‘died suddenly’. Another says he drowned in a flooded river; more recent historians find this implausible because his death occurred in the wrong season for a river to be flooded. Oral traditions claim that Sunni Ali was assassinated by his nephew Mamar, the son of his sister Kassey. These sources say that at the time, Mamar was a provincial governor. Mamar would later go on to become Askia Muhammad I.
Sunni Ali was succeeded by his son Sunni Baru (or Abu Bakr Da’u). Sunni Baru’s succession, however, was contested by the man who would become Askia Muhammad I. The sources provide contesting accounts of Askia Muhammad’s ancestry. Some sources, as mentioned above, claim that he was the nephew of Sunni Ali and the man who killed the former ruler. Arabic sources say that his ancestors were from Sila or Futa Toro, which suggests that he was of either Soninke or Tukulor descent.
Askia Muhammad seems to have attempted to launch a coup against Sunni Baru. When that failed, he managed to raise an army, with the support of at least one ranking general in the Empire. Sunni Baru as raised an army. Askia Muhammad’s forces prevailed in April 1493, making him the new ruler of the Empire.
As ruler, Askia Muhammad continued the military campaigns of...
Read the full article here
Wednesday, October 20, 2010
Fun facts about Toronto, Canada
Toronto is located on the shores of Lake Ontario in south-eastern Ontario. It is the biggest city in Canada and the country’s main financial and business hub. Together with neighboring municipalities, it forms one of the largest urban centers in North America. Toronto has a reputation for being safe and clean; it has been described as being like a ‘New York City run by the Swiss’*(1).
“Bought at a bargain price”:
What is now Toronto was originally sold to the British by the Indigenous Mississaugas in 1787, for 24 brass kettles, 2 dozen hats, 10 dozen mirrors, a bale of flowered flannel, 96 gallons of rum, 200 gunflints and a small sum of cash. For these items, the British obtained 1,000 square kilometres (386 square miles) of land bordering Lake Ontario. The total value of all these items is probably a just two or three thousand dollars, at most, in today’s money. Definitely not enough to buy much real estate in downtown Toronto today.
“Another New York”
Toronto was originally called “York”. Just like New York City, it was named after the town of the same name in Yorkshire, England. The name was changed to Toronto in 1834. The name York still survives, however, in some areas in and around Toronto. There is the City of York, East York and North York within Toronto. North of Toronto there is a suburban municipality called the Region of York.
“The original Toronto”
Mississauga, a suburb west of Toronto, was named after the Mississauga First Nations who had originally sold the Toronto land to the British. Mississauga was created when the city of York officials bought additional land from the Mississaugas. The original name for Mississauga was Toronto Township. Its name was later changed to Mississauga.
“York becomes the capital of Upper Canada”
Toronto, which was then still called York, became the capital of Upper Canada in 1797. The former capital of the colony had been Newark- not Newark, New Jersey, but the town of Newark in Upper Canada, which was later renamed Niagara-on-the-Lake.
“Fort York is built- and built again”
At the foot of Bathurst street, near to the lake shore is the historic Fort York. Fort York was originally built in the 1790s. It was poorly constructed, however, because the British government diverted necessary building materials to help fortify the town of Kingston to the east. The British felt that Kingston, which guarded the Lake Ontario entry to the St. Lawrence River, was of more strategic importance than York. The poorly built original fort was soon abandoned and a new fort was built 100 meters to the east.
“It is never too late to return stolen goods”
During the war of 1812, an American force, 4 times the size of the British defenders, managed to take the fort. American soldiers spent 6 days in York, looting and pillaging. The recently built government buildings were burnt down, and the ceremonial Assembly Mace was taken. British forces retaliated the following year by burning down the Capitol and Presidential Mansion in Washington. The Mace was returned over 100 years later by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1934. Some rare books, taken by the Americans from York’s library in 1812, have never been returned.
“Fort York is rebuilt, better then ever”
American forces returned a second time to in 1813. This time they faced no resistance in reoccupying the city. But by the time they came back for a third time in 1814, the British had rebuilt Fort York into a relatively formidable fortress and American forces were forced to withdraw.
“Yonge Street, the world’s longest road”
Yonge Street, is the main street in Toronto and the longest street in the world. It was originally begun as a military road in 1796 to connect Toronto to the Great Lakes to the north. This was in case the Americans were able to take control of the southern Great Lakes. Upper Canadian Governor John Graves Simcoe named the road in honor of former British War Secretary Sir George Yonge.
“Toll roads return to Toronto, after 100 years”
In 1997, Toronto opened highway 407, a toll road. Although toll roads had not been seen in the city for over 100 years, they were not altogether new. Beginning in the 1830s, the government charged fees on Yonge Street. Bloor Street, another main Toronto road, was originally called Toll-gate road.
“So it wasn’t just to show off?”
Toronto’s famous CN Tower was built ...
Read the full article here
“Bought at a bargain price”:
What is now Toronto was originally sold to the British by the Indigenous Mississaugas in 1787, for 24 brass kettles, 2 dozen hats, 10 dozen mirrors, a bale of flowered flannel, 96 gallons of rum, 200 gunflints and a small sum of cash. For these items, the British obtained 1,000 square kilometres (386 square miles) of land bordering Lake Ontario. The total value of all these items is probably a just two or three thousand dollars, at most, in today’s money. Definitely not enough to buy much real estate in downtown Toronto today.
“Another New York”
Toronto was originally called “York”. Just like New York City, it was named after the town of the same name in Yorkshire, England. The name was changed to Toronto in 1834. The name York still survives, however, in some areas in and around Toronto. There is the City of York, East York and North York within Toronto. North of Toronto there is a suburban municipality called the Region of York.
“The original Toronto”
Mississauga, a suburb west of Toronto, was named after the Mississauga First Nations who had originally sold the Toronto land to the British. Mississauga was created when the city of York officials bought additional land from the Mississaugas. The original name for Mississauga was Toronto Township. Its name was later changed to Mississauga.
“York becomes the capital of Upper Canada”
Toronto, which was then still called York, became the capital of Upper Canada in 1797. The former capital of the colony had been Newark- not Newark, New Jersey, but the town of Newark in Upper Canada, which was later renamed Niagara-on-the-Lake.
“Fort York is built- and built again”
At the foot of Bathurst street, near to the lake shore is the historic Fort York. Fort York was originally built in the 1790s. It was poorly constructed, however, because the British government diverted necessary building materials to help fortify the town of Kingston to the east. The British felt that Kingston, which guarded the Lake Ontario entry to the St. Lawrence River, was of more strategic importance than York. The poorly built original fort was soon abandoned and a new fort was built 100 meters to the east.
“It is never too late to return stolen goods”
During the war of 1812, an American force, 4 times the size of the British defenders, managed to take the fort. American soldiers spent 6 days in York, looting and pillaging. The recently built government buildings were burnt down, and the ceremonial Assembly Mace was taken. British forces retaliated the following year by burning down the Capitol and Presidential Mansion in Washington. The Mace was returned over 100 years later by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1934. Some rare books, taken by the Americans from York’s library in 1812, have never been returned.
“Fort York is rebuilt, better then ever”
American forces returned a second time to in 1813. This time they faced no resistance in reoccupying the city. But by the time they came back for a third time in 1814, the British had rebuilt Fort York into a relatively formidable fortress and American forces were forced to withdraw.
“Yonge Street, the world’s longest road”
Yonge Street, is the main street in Toronto and the longest street in the world. It was originally begun as a military road in 1796 to connect Toronto to the Great Lakes to the north. This was in case the Americans were able to take control of the southern Great Lakes. Upper Canadian Governor John Graves Simcoe named the road in honor of former British War Secretary Sir George Yonge.
“Toll roads return to Toronto, after 100 years”
In 1997, Toronto opened highway 407, a toll road. Although toll roads had not been seen in the city for over 100 years, they were not altogether new. Beginning in the 1830s, the government charged fees on Yonge Street. Bloor Street, another main Toronto road, was originally called Toll-gate road.
“So it wasn’t just to show off?”
Toronto’s famous CN Tower was built ...
Read the full article here
The causes of the Anglo-Zulu War
The Anglo-Zulu War of 1879 is probably best known for the famous Zulu victory over the British at the battle of Isandhlwana. That victory sent shockwaves through the British Empire and helped solidify the reputation of the Zulus as a ‘warlike tribe’. Ironically, however, the war was entirely the product of British aggression. The Zulu King Cetshwayo, on the other hand, did everything in his power to prevent the war. His efforts, however, were useless against British officials who were determined to crush the military power of South Africa’s most powerful African kingdom once and for all.
Two British officials were largely responsible for the Anglo-Zulu War. The first was the 4th Earl of Carnarvon, Henry Herbert, better known as Lord Carnarvon. Carnarvon was Secretary of State for the Colonies in the British government. In the 1870s, Southern Africa was still a patchwork of different political entities. Some, like the Cape and Natal, were British colonies. Others like Transvaal and Orange Free State were white Afrikaner republics. Many other areas were still under the control of African kingdoms, like those of the Zulu and the Pedi. Carnarvon hoped to create a Confederation of all the white states, both British and Afrikaner, of Southern Africa. It was the pursuit of this Confederation scheme that motivated some a British official named Henry Bartle Frere to start the Anglo-Zulu War. To execute his program of Confederation, Carnarvon appointed Frere High Commissioner for Southern Africa. Carnarvon, Frere and the supporters of Confederation encountered a great deal of resistance to their scheme from both British and Afrikaners. The Afrikaner republics showed little interest in Confederation. Similary, the elected Assembly and Prime Minister John Molteno of the British Cape Colony rejected calls for Confederation.
After failing to get white South African leaders to voluntarily accept Confederation, Carnarvon and Frere began to take a more heavy handed approach. In early 1877 the Afrikaner Republic of Transvaal was bankrupt and on the verge of collapse. Carnarvon used this as an opportunity to annex the republic. In 1877 a conflict arose between Frere, the Commissioner and Molteno, the Prime Minister of the Cape. Frere used his power to have Frere dismissed from office. In doing so, Frere removed one of the main opponents of Confederation.
Frere soon became convinced that the destruction of the Zulu Kingdom was the key to establishing a white South African Confederation. The Zulu Kingdom was the most populous and most militarily formidable black state in Southern Africa. Frere felt that conquering the Zulu would bring several benefits. First, the large Zulu population would become available to white employers after conquest. Secondly, Zulu military power was seen as a potential threat to the establishment of white rule. Conquest would remove that threat. Finally, Frere hoped that the destruction of the Zulu Kingdom would remove white objections to Confederation. The Afrikaners in Transvaal would be grateful for the conquest because it would end their ongoing border dispute with the Zulu. A more favourable attitude towards the British on the part of the Afrikaners would help the confederation operate more smoothly. It would also remove some of the Cape Colony’s objections to Confederation, because the cost of defending Natal would not be so high without the threat posed by the nearby Zulu Kingdom.
The Zulu Kingdom had been founded as a military state by Shaka. Shaka had established a system of conscription whereby young men were drafted into military regiments. Although the pre-Anglo-Zulu War reign of Cetshwayo and his predecessor Mpande had been peaceful, young Zulu men continued to be drafted into regiments and sent to military towns for training.
As the King of the Zulu, Cetshwayo did everything in his power to maintain good relations with the British, while still maintaining his kingdom’s independence. British South African statesman Theophilus Shepstone had supported Cetshwayo’s bid for kingship against his half-brother. Cetshwayo had gone as far as to invite Shepstone to play a formal role in his coronation. In addition, Cetshwayo employed a British trader named John Dunn to help provide him with advice on maintaining good relations with the British.
Frere was seeking to provoke a war with a ruler who was determined to avoid conflict with the British. Frere’s initial hope to provoke a war was a border conflict between the Transvaal Afrikaners and the Zulus. Cetshwayo requested, and eventually received, British arbitration of the dispute. Frere expected the decision to go against the Zulus. He believed that Cetshwayo would then be forced to go to war, rather then accept the decision and the resulting loss of prestige at home. This would provide a pretext for British military intervention. But the British arbitration court, which had been appointed by the Natal government, decided decisively in favour of the Zulus.
Now Frere needed to find a new pretext for war. This came in July 1878 when two adulterous wives of a Zulu sub-chief and their lovers fled retribution. A group of Zulus, including the brother and eldest son of the chief, chased the fugitives and caught them just across the border in Natal. The offending parties were taken back to Zulu territory and executed. Frere used this relatively minor incident as an excuse to send an ultimatum to the Zulu King. Frere demanded the surrender of the Zulus who had led the apprehension, as well as a large fine. He also demanded the demobilisation of the Zulu military and a permanent end to the Zulu system of conscription. Frere knew that these last two conditions would be impossible for Cetshwayo to comply with without destroying his own political rule and surrendering Zulu independence. Frere set a thirty day deadline for compliance with his demands. He was, in effect, asking Cetshwayo to dismantle a 50 year old social and political system in a month’s time.
It was obviously impossible for Cetshwayo to comply with Frere’s demands. Cetshwayo and his royal council decided to try to comply with as much of the ultimatum as possible without surrendering Zulu independence. Cetshwayo offered to hand over the men involved in the incident. He also asked for more time to collect the fine because at that time of the year rivers were flooded in the kingdom and communication was more difficult. Cetshwayo’s offer of partial compliance was rejected. When the ultimatum expired, British military forces invaded the Zulu kingdom. Cetshwayo prepared his army for defensive action. Cetshwayo hoped that if he could defeat the British invading forces, he would be able to convince them to negotiate. Zulu regiments were ordered not to cross the Natal border and not to attack British civilians. Zulu soldiers were told to only attack British soldiers who they would recognize by their distinctive red uniforms. Because of this order, several British military personnel avoided being killed because they were not wearing red uniforms.
The British invasion force was made up of three columns...
Read the entire article here
Two British officials were largely responsible for the Anglo-Zulu War. The first was the 4th Earl of Carnarvon, Henry Herbert, better known as Lord Carnarvon. Carnarvon was Secretary of State for the Colonies in the British government. In the 1870s, Southern Africa was still a patchwork of different political entities. Some, like the Cape and Natal, were British colonies. Others like Transvaal and Orange Free State were white Afrikaner republics. Many other areas were still under the control of African kingdoms, like those of the Zulu and the Pedi. Carnarvon hoped to create a Confederation of all the white states, both British and Afrikaner, of Southern Africa. It was the pursuit of this Confederation scheme that motivated some a British official named Henry Bartle Frere to start the Anglo-Zulu War. To execute his program of Confederation, Carnarvon appointed Frere High Commissioner for Southern Africa. Carnarvon, Frere and the supporters of Confederation encountered a great deal of resistance to their scheme from both British and Afrikaners. The Afrikaner republics showed little interest in Confederation. Similary, the elected Assembly and Prime Minister John Molteno of the British Cape Colony rejected calls for Confederation.
After failing to get white South African leaders to voluntarily accept Confederation, Carnarvon and Frere began to take a more heavy handed approach. In early 1877 the Afrikaner Republic of Transvaal was bankrupt and on the verge of collapse. Carnarvon used this as an opportunity to annex the republic. In 1877 a conflict arose between Frere, the Commissioner and Molteno, the Prime Minister of the Cape. Frere used his power to have Frere dismissed from office. In doing so, Frere removed one of the main opponents of Confederation.
Frere soon became convinced that the destruction of the Zulu Kingdom was the key to establishing a white South African Confederation. The Zulu Kingdom was the most populous and most militarily formidable black state in Southern Africa. Frere felt that conquering the Zulu would bring several benefits. First, the large Zulu population would become available to white employers after conquest. Secondly, Zulu military power was seen as a potential threat to the establishment of white rule. Conquest would remove that threat. Finally, Frere hoped that the destruction of the Zulu Kingdom would remove white objections to Confederation. The Afrikaners in Transvaal would be grateful for the conquest because it would end their ongoing border dispute with the Zulu. A more favourable attitude towards the British on the part of the Afrikaners would help the confederation operate more smoothly. It would also remove some of the Cape Colony’s objections to Confederation, because the cost of defending Natal would not be so high without the threat posed by the nearby Zulu Kingdom.
The Zulu Kingdom had been founded as a military state by Shaka. Shaka had established a system of conscription whereby young men were drafted into military regiments. Although the pre-Anglo-Zulu War reign of Cetshwayo and his predecessor Mpande had been peaceful, young Zulu men continued to be drafted into regiments and sent to military towns for training.
As the King of the Zulu, Cetshwayo did everything in his power to maintain good relations with the British, while still maintaining his kingdom’s independence. British South African statesman Theophilus Shepstone had supported Cetshwayo’s bid for kingship against his half-brother. Cetshwayo had gone as far as to invite Shepstone to play a formal role in his coronation. In addition, Cetshwayo employed a British trader named John Dunn to help provide him with advice on maintaining good relations with the British.
Frere was seeking to provoke a war with a ruler who was determined to avoid conflict with the British. Frere’s initial hope to provoke a war was a border conflict between the Transvaal Afrikaners and the Zulus. Cetshwayo requested, and eventually received, British arbitration of the dispute. Frere expected the decision to go against the Zulus. He believed that Cetshwayo would then be forced to go to war, rather then accept the decision and the resulting loss of prestige at home. This would provide a pretext for British military intervention. But the British arbitration court, which had been appointed by the Natal government, decided decisively in favour of the Zulus.
Now Frere needed to find a new pretext for war. This came in July 1878 when two adulterous wives of a Zulu sub-chief and their lovers fled retribution. A group of Zulus, including the brother and eldest son of the chief, chased the fugitives and caught them just across the border in Natal. The offending parties were taken back to Zulu territory and executed. Frere used this relatively minor incident as an excuse to send an ultimatum to the Zulu King. Frere demanded the surrender of the Zulus who had led the apprehension, as well as a large fine. He also demanded the demobilisation of the Zulu military and a permanent end to the Zulu system of conscription. Frere knew that these last two conditions would be impossible for Cetshwayo to comply with without destroying his own political rule and surrendering Zulu independence. Frere set a thirty day deadline for compliance with his demands. He was, in effect, asking Cetshwayo to dismantle a 50 year old social and political system in a month’s time.
It was obviously impossible for Cetshwayo to comply with Frere’s demands. Cetshwayo and his royal council decided to try to comply with as much of the ultimatum as possible without surrendering Zulu independence. Cetshwayo offered to hand over the men involved in the incident. He also asked for more time to collect the fine because at that time of the year rivers were flooded in the kingdom and communication was more difficult. Cetshwayo’s offer of partial compliance was rejected. When the ultimatum expired, British military forces invaded the Zulu kingdom. Cetshwayo prepared his army for defensive action. Cetshwayo hoped that if he could defeat the British invading forces, he would be able to convince them to negotiate. Zulu regiments were ordered not to cross the Natal border and not to attack British civilians. Zulu soldiers were told to only attack British soldiers who they would recognize by their distinctive red uniforms. Because of this order, several British military personnel avoided being killed because they were not wearing red uniforms.
The British invasion force was made up of three columns...
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The history of the English language
History of the English Language
Scholars recognize 3 distinct stages in the development of the English language:
(1) Old English (formerly called Anglo-Saxon), 449-1066 or 1100
(2) Middle English, 1066 or 1100-1450 or 1500
(3) Modern English, 1450 or 1500-present
Modern English can be subdivided into Early Modern English (1500-1750), and Late Modern English 1750-present.
(1) Old English, 449-1066 or 1100
Old English was spoken by some Germanic groups in the area of what is now southern Denmark and northern Germany. These were the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. When these groups invaded and colonized Britain in the 5th century A.D., they brought their language with them. The Brythonic Celtic speakers were displaced. Brythonic Celtic survived only in the more remote parts of the Britain, such as Wales and Cornwall. The Celtic language of the pre-Anglo-Saxon inhabitants seems to have had relatively little influence on Old English. Most words of Celtic origin that are used in modern English are relatively recent additions to the English vocabulary.
Four major dialects of Old English are recognized: Kentish, which was spoken by the Jutes; West Saxon, the Saxon dialect of Wessex; and Northumbrian and Mercian, which were dialects of the Angles. In the 9th century, the Saxons of Wessex became the rulers of most of England. As a result, their dialect is the one often found in written documents from this period of time. The most famous example of Old English literature, however, was the epic poem Beowulf, which was written in Mercian.
Old English contained a number of words of Latin origin. Some of these words probably entered the language before the Angles, Saxons and Jutes settled England. Some others may have entered the language via Celtic people. The spread of Christianity, however, played the most important role in the bringing Latin vocabulary into Old English.
The other foreign source of vocabulary were the Scandinavian dialects of Norse invaders and settlers. The Norse ruled and colonized many areas of Britain during the 9th, 10th and early 11th centuries. A number of Scandinavian words entered the language during this period of time.
Old English was very different from Modern English. For a Modern English speaker, Old English would be completely unintelligible. The grammar of Old English was quite different from its modern counterpart. In Old English, for example, made grammatical distinctions for gender. This is no longer done in modern English.
(2) Middle English, 1066 or 1100-1450 or 1500
One of the most significant events in the development of the English language was the Norman conquest of 1066. The Normans were Norse invaders who had settled in northern France. They had adopted the French language of the local people. The dialect they spoke was called Norman French. When the Normans conquered England, they brought Norman French with them. This became the language of the ruling aristocracy. The common people, however, still spoke the Anglo-Saxon tongue. Many French terms were introduced into English during this period of time. Many of these terms were related to administration.
During the Middle English period, English grammar became simplified. This may be because the use of English became restricted to commoners. The formal Old English of the Saxon nobility was replaced by the French of the new Anglo-Norman aristocracy. The only English that was still used was the informal, colloquial English of the commoners.
(3) Modern English, 1450 or 1500-present
During the Modern English period, English began to resemble contemporary English. Documents written during this period are at least somewhat intelligible to today’s English speakers. During this period many words were borrowed from other European languages, such as Latin, Greek, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese. Colonial expansion brought many new words into the vocabulary.
Words of colonial origin include:
Raccoon from the Virginia Algonquian ‘aroughcun’.
Wigwam from the North American Algonquian language Abenaki ‘wikewam’.
Llama and quinine, from the South American language Quechua via Spanish.
Barbecue and cannibal from the Caribbean language Arawak.
Chimpanzee from the Central African language Kikongo via French.
Bandana from the Indian language Hindi via Portuguese.
Kangaroo and boomerang from Australian Aborigine languages.Read the entire article here
Scholars recognize 3 distinct stages in the development of the English language:
(1) Old English (formerly called Anglo-Saxon), 449-1066 or 1100
(2) Middle English, 1066 or 1100-1450 or 1500
(3) Modern English, 1450 or 1500-present
Modern English can be subdivided into Early Modern English (1500-1750), and Late Modern English 1750-present.
(1) Old English, 449-1066 or 1100
Old English was spoken by some Germanic groups in the area of what is now southern Denmark and northern Germany. These were the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. When these groups invaded and colonized Britain in the 5th century A.D., they brought their language with them. The Brythonic Celtic speakers were displaced. Brythonic Celtic survived only in the more remote parts of the Britain, such as Wales and Cornwall. The Celtic language of the pre-Anglo-Saxon inhabitants seems to have had relatively little influence on Old English. Most words of Celtic origin that are used in modern English are relatively recent additions to the English vocabulary.
Four major dialects of Old English are recognized: Kentish, which was spoken by the Jutes; West Saxon, the Saxon dialect of Wessex; and Northumbrian and Mercian, which were dialects of the Angles. In the 9th century, the Saxons of Wessex became the rulers of most of England. As a result, their dialect is the one often found in written documents from this period of time. The most famous example of Old English literature, however, was the epic poem Beowulf, which was written in Mercian.
Old English contained a number of words of Latin origin. Some of these words probably entered the language before the Angles, Saxons and Jutes settled England. Some others may have entered the language via Celtic people. The spread of Christianity, however, played the most important role in the bringing Latin vocabulary into Old English.
The other foreign source of vocabulary were the Scandinavian dialects of Norse invaders and settlers. The Norse ruled and colonized many areas of Britain during the 9th, 10th and early 11th centuries. A number of Scandinavian words entered the language during this period of time.
Old English was very different from Modern English. For a Modern English speaker, Old English would be completely unintelligible. The grammar of Old English was quite different from its modern counterpart. In Old English, for example, made grammatical distinctions for gender. This is no longer done in modern English.
(2) Middle English, 1066 or 1100-1450 or 1500
One of the most significant events in the development of the English language was the Norman conquest of 1066. The Normans were Norse invaders who had settled in northern France. They had adopted the French language of the local people. The dialect they spoke was called Norman French. When the Normans conquered England, they brought Norman French with them. This became the language of the ruling aristocracy. The common people, however, still spoke the Anglo-Saxon tongue. Many French terms were introduced into English during this period of time. Many of these terms were related to administration.
During the Middle English period, English grammar became simplified. This may be because the use of English became restricted to commoners. The formal Old English of the Saxon nobility was replaced by the French of the new Anglo-Norman aristocracy. The only English that was still used was the informal, colloquial English of the commoners.
(3) Modern English, 1450 or 1500-present
During the Modern English period, English began to resemble contemporary English. Documents written during this period are at least somewhat intelligible to today’s English speakers. During this period many words were borrowed from other European languages, such as Latin, Greek, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese. Colonial expansion brought many new words into the vocabulary.
Words of colonial origin include:
Raccoon from the Virginia Algonquian ‘aroughcun’.
Wigwam from the North American Algonquian language Abenaki ‘wikewam’.
Llama and quinine, from the South American language Quechua via Spanish.
Barbecue and cannibal from the Caribbean language Arawak.
Chimpanzee from the Central African language Kikongo via French.
Bandana from the Indian language Hindi via Portuguese.
Kangaroo and boomerang from Australian Aborigine languages.Read the entire article here
Tuesday, October 19, 2010
Great things to do in Toronto, Canada
Great things to do in Toronto, Canada
Toronto is a city that can easily overwhelm a visitor (or a resident) with the sheer volume of diversions it offers. There are so many things to see, and so many things to do that, you will never be able to get everything done. It is a city that is definitely worth a second, third or fourth visit.
Toronto is Canada’s biggest city and the country’s main economic and financial centre. It is located on Lake Ontario in the southern part of the province of Ontario. The city is a few miles away from Niagara Falls and just a 2 hour drive away from the city of Buffalo in Upstate New York.
The CN Tower is one of the tallest buildings in the world and the most visible landmark in the city, for reasons that should be obvious. The tower has a distinctive and easily recognizable shape. If you are in downtown Toronto the tower will always be visible and can be used for orientation. The southernmost point of downtown Toronto is the lakeshore. The tower is located near the Lakeshore. So when you are downtown, the direction where you see the tower will always be south. Not surprisingly, the CN Tower has traditionally been a tourist favourite; the cost of admission is about $20-30 Canadian.
Toronto is home to a wide variety of professional and amateur sports teams and sporting venues. Some of the larger, downtown, sporting venues are the Ricoh Coliseum, the Air Canada Centre and the Rogers Centre, formerly known as the skydome. Major league sports teams in the city include the NHL Maple Leafs, the NBA Raptors and the Toronto Blue Jays of American League baseball. The Leafs and the Raptors play at the Air Canada Centre, while the Blue Jays play at the Rogers Centre. The Toronto Argos of the Canadian Football League (CFL) play at the Rogers Centre. These stadiums also host other sporting events as well as concerts.
Toronto is home to a variety of shopping centres. The Toronto Eaton Centre is a large mall located in the heart of downtown Toronto, at Yonge and Dundas. Large shopping centres outside of the downtown core include Yorkdale Mall in North York and upscale Sherway Gardens in Etobicoke. Square One Mall is a large shopping centre located in Mississauga, a suburban municipality west of Toronto. Pacific Mall is a large, Asian-style mall that is located just outside Toronto city boundaries in the suburb of Markham.
There are many museums, art galleries and similar attractions in Toronto. The Royal Ontario Museum (the ROM) is located in downtown Toronto. The Bata Shoe Museum is about a block away from the ROM. The Shoe Museum contains a collection of footwear from various parts of the world and from various time periods. The city is home to several art galleries, including the Art Gallery of Ontario and the Gardiner Museum. Other downtown attractions include the Hockey Hall of Fame, the Toronto Reference Library, both of which are located on Yonge Street. The Science Centre is outside of the downtown core but it is a still great place to visit, especially for those who have children. Canada’s Wonderland and Wild Water Kingdom are two amusement parks located north and northwest of the city.
Toronto’s history is preserved in a variety of historical sites. Black Creek Pioneer Village, in the north end of the city, is a recreation of a typical early colonial community in southern Ontario. Fort York, in the west end of downtown Toronto, is a relic of the earliest days of British settlement in the area. The Fort was originally established as a British military garrison in 1793 and saw action against American forces in the War of 1812. Also of historical interest is Casa Loma, the palatial home of a wealthy turn-of-the-century investor. When the owner was unable to pay his taxes during the Depression, the home was seized by the government. Today it is open to the public.
Toronto has a wide variety of parks and neighbourhoods to explore. Yonge Street is the city’s main commercial strip. Yonge-Dundas Square is just across the street from the Eaton Centre. It hosts free, open air events throughout the year. Bay Street, one block west of Yonge, contains the financial center of the city. Another block west is the sprawling downtown University of Toronto campus. The University is the oldest post-secondary institution in the city. The city’s main Chinatown runs along Spadina Avenue and along Dundas Street. The area includes brightly lit signs in Chinese characters and food stalls along the sidewalk. There are other Chinatown areas in city including East Chinatown and Agincourt in the east end. Just west of Chinatown, off Spadina Avenue, is Kensington Market. Kensington consists of narrow streets and shops that sell a wide variety of food and other items. There are shops selling fresh fish, clothing stores, Caribbean grocery and food stores and stores selling food from a variety of other cultures. Other ethnic neighbourhoods include Greektown on the Danforth, Koreatown on Bloor Street, Little Italy, Little Portugal, Little India and Little Jamaica on Eglinton West. Queen Street West is a street known for its avant-garde scene. The entertainment district runs along Richmond Street West and Adelaide, just south of Queen Street West. Yorkville, at Yonge and Bloor, is an upscale area. It is known to be frequented by visiting celebrities, especially during the Toronto International Film Festival.
Toronto wide variety of festivals and events going on throughout the year. The International Film Festival, in early to mid-September, draws famous actors and directors to city. The Caribana parade in late July/early August attracts visitors from Montreal and the United States to watch a Caribbean-style parade along the Lakeshore. There are countless other events in the city, including Doors Open Toronto and Taste of the Danforth.
read the entire article here
Toronto is a city that can easily overwhelm a visitor (or a resident) with the sheer volume of diversions it offers. There are so many things to see, and so many things to do that, you will never be able to get everything done. It is a city that is definitely worth a second, third or fourth visit.
Toronto is Canada’s biggest city and the country’s main economic and financial centre. It is located on Lake Ontario in the southern part of the province of Ontario. The city is a few miles away from Niagara Falls and just a 2 hour drive away from the city of Buffalo in Upstate New York.
The CN Tower is one of the tallest buildings in the world and the most visible landmark in the city, for reasons that should be obvious. The tower has a distinctive and easily recognizable shape. If you are in downtown Toronto the tower will always be visible and can be used for orientation. The southernmost point of downtown Toronto is the lakeshore. The tower is located near the Lakeshore. So when you are downtown, the direction where you see the tower will always be south. Not surprisingly, the CN Tower has traditionally been a tourist favourite; the cost of admission is about $20-30 Canadian.
Toronto is home to a wide variety of professional and amateur sports teams and sporting venues. Some of the larger, downtown, sporting venues are the Ricoh Coliseum, the Air Canada Centre and the Rogers Centre, formerly known as the skydome. Major league sports teams in the city include the NHL Maple Leafs, the NBA Raptors and the Toronto Blue Jays of American League baseball. The Leafs and the Raptors play at the Air Canada Centre, while the Blue Jays play at the Rogers Centre. The Toronto Argos of the Canadian Football League (CFL) play at the Rogers Centre. These stadiums also host other sporting events as well as concerts.
Toronto is home to a variety of shopping centres. The Toronto Eaton Centre is a large mall located in the heart of downtown Toronto, at Yonge and Dundas. Large shopping centres outside of the downtown core include Yorkdale Mall in North York and upscale Sherway Gardens in Etobicoke. Square One Mall is a large shopping centre located in Mississauga, a suburban municipality west of Toronto. Pacific Mall is a large, Asian-style mall that is located just outside Toronto city boundaries in the suburb of Markham.
There are many museums, art galleries and similar attractions in Toronto. The Royal Ontario Museum (the ROM) is located in downtown Toronto. The Bata Shoe Museum is about a block away from the ROM. The Shoe Museum contains a collection of footwear from various parts of the world and from various time periods. The city is home to several art galleries, including the Art Gallery of Ontario and the Gardiner Museum. Other downtown attractions include the Hockey Hall of Fame, the Toronto Reference Library, both of which are located on Yonge Street. The Science Centre is outside of the downtown core but it is a still great place to visit, especially for those who have children. Canada’s Wonderland and Wild Water Kingdom are two amusement parks located north and northwest of the city.
Toronto’s history is preserved in a variety of historical sites. Black Creek Pioneer Village, in the north end of the city, is a recreation of a typical early colonial community in southern Ontario. Fort York, in the west end of downtown Toronto, is a relic of the earliest days of British settlement in the area. The Fort was originally established as a British military garrison in 1793 and saw action against American forces in the War of 1812. Also of historical interest is Casa Loma, the palatial home of a wealthy turn-of-the-century investor. When the owner was unable to pay his taxes during the Depression, the home was seized by the government. Today it is open to the public.
Toronto has a wide variety of parks and neighbourhoods to explore. Yonge Street is the city’s main commercial strip. Yonge-Dundas Square is just across the street from the Eaton Centre. It hosts free, open air events throughout the year. Bay Street, one block west of Yonge, contains the financial center of the city. Another block west is the sprawling downtown University of Toronto campus. The University is the oldest post-secondary institution in the city. The city’s main Chinatown runs along Spadina Avenue and along Dundas Street. The area includes brightly lit signs in Chinese characters and food stalls along the sidewalk. There are other Chinatown areas in city including East Chinatown and Agincourt in the east end. Just west of Chinatown, off Spadina Avenue, is Kensington Market. Kensington consists of narrow streets and shops that sell a wide variety of food and other items. There are shops selling fresh fish, clothing stores, Caribbean grocery and food stores and stores selling food from a variety of other cultures. Other ethnic neighbourhoods include Greektown on the Danforth, Koreatown on Bloor Street, Little Italy, Little Portugal, Little India and Little Jamaica on Eglinton West. Queen Street West is a street known for its avant-garde scene. The entertainment district runs along Richmond Street West and Adelaide, just south of Queen Street West. Yorkville, at Yonge and Bloor, is an upscale area. It is known to be frequented by visiting celebrities, especially during the Toronto International Film Festival.
Toronto wide variety of festivals and events going on throughout the year. The International Film Festival, in early to mid-September, draws famous actors and directors to city. The Caribana parade in late July/early August attracts visitors from Montreal and the United States to watch a Caribbean-style parade along the Lakeshore. There are countless other events in the city, including Doors Open Toronto and Taste of the Danforth.
read the entire article here
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