List of English and British Monarchs Part 1: Saxon and Danish Kings
Saxon Kings
Egbert (r. 802-19)
Ethelwulf
Ethelbert
Ethelred I
Alfred the Great
Edward the Elder
Athelstan the Glorious
Edmund I
Edred
Edwy the Fair
Edgar the Peaceable
Edward the Martyr
Ethelred II
Sweyn of Denmark
Edmund II Ironside
Danish Kings
Canute
Hardicanute
Harold I Harefoot
Saxon Kings
Edward the Confessor
Harold II
England, Britain, Great Britain, United Kingdom, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Anglo-Saxons, Celts, Danes, Scandinavians, Vikings, Norse, Canute, Normans, Norsemen, Wessex, Sussex, London, Thames River, Normandy, Brittany, France, Paris, Ile de France, Romans, Welsh, Wales, Scotland, Scots, Gaelic, Irish, Ireland, Manx, Isle of Man, British, Edward the Confessor, Harold II, Canute, Edmund II, Alfred the Great, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Battle of Hastings
Showing posts with label history. Show all posts
Showing posts with label history. Show all posts
Sunday, October 31, 2010
Thursday, October 28, 2010
The rise of Africa's Songhai Empire
In the Western Sudan, three major African states flourished in the pre-colonial era. The shadowy kingdom of Ghana, not to be confused with the modern Republic of Ghana, was the oldest of the three. The Malinke Empire, made famous by the wealth of its legendary ruler Mansa Musa, succeeded Ghana (*see notes [1]). The last of the great kingdoms of this region was the Songhai Empire, which flourished from the 15th to late 16th century.
The Songhai Empire was named for the Songhai people who founded it. The Songhai traditionally lived along the Niger River in what is now the Republic of Niger and the Republic of Mali, as far west as Lake Debo. Early in Songhai history, a town named Kukiya was established as the capital of the Songhai kingdom. The first dynasty to rule the Songhai kingdom was the Dya dynasty. As the Songhai kingdom became involved in the trans-Saharan trade, the town of Gao, north of Kukiya, emerged as an major trading center. Because of the trans-Saharan trade, the Songhai kingdom became known to Arab writers, who referred it as “Kawkaw”.
In the 13th century the expanding Malinke Empire gained control over the town of Gao, thereby capturing the trade routes that formerly belonged to the Songhai. The Songhai heartland eventually also came under Mandingo rule, although it was only a peripheral part of the empire. The Songhai revolted around 1275 when the Malinke Empire was facing internal difficulties. This revolt was led by a man named Ali Kolon (or Ali Golom). He became the founder of a new Songhai dynasty, the Sunni dynasty, which replaced the former Dya dynasty. From this time forward the title “Sunni” or “Shi” was adopted by succeeding members of the dynasty. After enjoying a brief period of independence, however, the Songhai were reconquered by the Malinke.
By the beginning of the 15th century the Malinke Empire was again in a state of decline. The eastern provinces, including the Songhai areas, slipped out of Malinke control. Around 1420 the Songhai king Sunni Muhammad Da’o was powerful enough to raid territory that was still controlled by the declining Malinke Empire. Songhai expansion began under Sunni Sulayman Dandi (or Salman Dama, died 1464), who conquered the kingdom of Mema. Dandi’s successor was one of the most well-known Songhai rulers, Sunni Ali the Great (ruled 1464-1492). Sunni Ali, also known as Ali Ber, is generally considered to be the founder of the Songhai Empire. Sunni Ali led a series of military campaigns which expanded Songhai territory. Early campaigns, from 1467-1470, focused on pacifying the Tuareg of the southern Sahara. Sunni Ali later had to turn his attention to the Mossi kingdom of Yatenga to the south, which had been raiding the Niger River area. Sunni Ali drove out the Mossi who had occupied the Baghana region in 1483. Despite leading at least three separate expeditions against the Mossi, however, Sunni Ali was never able to completely remove this threat.
In the 1470s, Sunni Ali was able to capture the important trading town of Jenne (or Djenne). From Jenne, Sunni Ali attacked the remnants of the Malinke Empire to the west. These areas became tributaries of the Songhai Empire. Other campaigns were fought against Fula and Dogon tribes. Sunni Ali died on his way home from an expedition against the Fula. The historical sources disagree on the circumstances of his death. One scholar says that he ‘died suddenly’. Another says he drowned in a flooded river; more recent historians find this implausible because his death occurred in the wrong season for a river to be flooded. Oral traditions claim that Sunni Ali was assassinated by his nephew Mamar, the son of his sister Kassey. These sources say that at the time, Mamar was a provincial governor. Mamar would later go on to become Askia Muhammad I.
Sunni Ali was succeeded by his son Sunni Baru (or Abu Bakr Da’u). Sunni Baru’s succession, however, was contested by the man who would become Askia Muhammad I. The sources provide contesting accounts of Askia Muhammad’s ancestry. Some sources, as mentioned above, claim that he was the nephew of Sunni Ali and the man who killed the former ruler. Arabic sources say that his ancestors were from Sila or Futa Toro, which suggests that he was of either Soninke or Tukulor descent.
Askia Muhammad seems to have attempted to launch a coup against Sunni Baru. When that failed, he managed to raise an army, with the support of at least one ranking general in the Empire. Sunni Baru as raised an army. Askia Muhammad’s forces prevailed in April 1493, making him the new ruler of the Empire.
As ruler, Askia Muhammad continued the military campaigns of...
Read the full article here
The Songhai Empire was named for the Songhai people who founded it. The Songhai traditionally lived along the Niger River in what is now the Republic of Niger and the Republic of Mali, as far west as Lake Debo. Early in Songhai history, a town named Kukiya was established as the capital of the Songhai kingdom. The first dynasty to rule the Songhai kingdom was the Dya dynasty. As the Songhai kingdom became involved in the trans-Saharan trade, the town of Gao, north of Kukiya, emerged as an major trading center. Because of the trans-Saharan trade, the Songhai kingdom became known to Arab writers, who referred it as “Kawkaw”.
In the 13th century the expanding Malinke Empire gained control over the town of Gao, thereby capturing the trade routes that formerly belonged to the Songhai. The Songhai heartland eventually also came under Mandingo rule, although it was only a peripheral part of the empire. The Songhai revolted around 1275 when the Malinke Empire was facing internal difficulties. This revolt was led by a man named Ali Kolon (or Ali Golom). He became the founder of a new Songhai dynasty, the Sunni dynasty, which replaced the former Dya dynasty. From this time forward the title “Sunni” or “Shi” was adopted by succeeding members of the dynasty. After enjoying a brief period of independence, however, the Songhai were reconquered by the Malinke.
By the beginning of the 15th century the Malinke Empire was again in a state of decline. The eastern provinces, including the Songhai areas, slipped out of Malinke control. Around 1420 the Songhai king Sunni Muhammad Da’o was powerful enough to raid territory that was still controlled by the declining Malinke Empire. Songhai expansion began under Sunni Sulayman Dandi (or Salman Dama, died 1464), who conquered the kingdom of Mema. Dandi’s successor was one of the most well-known Songhai rulers, Sunni Ali the Great (ruled 1464-1492). Sunni Ali, also known as Ali Ber, is generally considered to be the founder of the Songhai Empire. Sunni Ali led a series of military campaigns which expanded Songhai territory. Early campaigns, from 1467-1470, focused on pacifying the Tuareg of the southern Sahara. Sunni Ali later had to turn his attention to the Mossi kingdom of Yatenga to the south, which had been raiding the Niger River area. Sunni Ali drove out the Mossi who had occupied the Baghana region in 1483. Despite leading at least three separate expeditions against the Mossi, however, Sunni Ali was never able to completely remove this threat.
In the 1470s, Sunni Ali was able to capture the important trading town of Jenne (or Djenne). From Jenne, Sunni Ali attacked the remnants of the Malinke Empire to the west. These areas became tributaries of the Songhai Empire. Other campaigns were fought against Fula and Dogon tribes. Sunni Ali died on his way home from an expedition against the Fula. The historical sources disagree on the circumstances of his death. One scholar says that he ‘died suddenly’. Another says he drowned in a flooded river; more recent historians find this implausible because his death occurred in the wrong season for a river to be flooded. Oral traditions claim that Sunni Ali was assassinated by his nephew Mamar, the son of his sister Kassey. These sources say that at the time, Mamar was a provincial governor. Mamar would later go on to become Askia Muhammad I.
Sunni Ali was succeeded by his son Sunni Baru (or Abu Bakr Da’u). Sunni Baru’s succession, however, was contested by the man who would become Askia Muhammad I. The sources provide contesting accounts of Askia Muhammad’s ancestry. Some sources, as mentioned above, claim that he was the nephew of Sunni Ali and the man who killed the former ruler. Arabic sources say that his ancestors were from Sila or Futa Toro, which suggests that he was of either Soninke or Tukulor descent.
Askia Muhammad seems to have attempted to launch a coup against Sunni Baru. When that failed, he managed to raise an army, with the support of at least one ranking general in the Empire. Sunni Baru as raised an army. Askia Muhammad’s forces prevailed in April 1493, making him the new ruler of the Empire.
As ruler, Askia Muhammad continued the military campaigns of...
Read the full article here
Wednesday, October 20, 2010
The causes of the Anglo-Zulu War
The Anglo-Zulu War of 1879 is probably best known for the famous Zulu victory over the British at the battle of Isandhlwana. That victory sent shockwaves through the British Empire and helped solidify the reputation of the Zulus as a ‘warlike tribe’. Ironically, however, the war was entirely the product of British aggression. The Zulu King Cetshwayo, on the other hand, did everything in his power to prevent the war. His efforts, however, were useless against British officials who were determined to crush the military power of South Africa’s most powerful African kingdom once and for all.
Two British officials were largely responsible for the Anglo-Zulu War. The first was the 4th Earl of Carnarvon, Henry Herbert, better known as Lord Carnarvon. Carnarvon was Secretary of State for the Colonies in the British government. In the 1870s, Southern Africa was still a patchwork of different political entities. Some, like the Cape and Natal, were British colonies. Others like Transvaal and Orange Free State were white Afrikaner republics. Many other areas were still under the control of African kingdoms, like those of the Zulu and the Pedi. Carnarvon hoped to create a Confederation of all the white states, both British and Afrikaner, of Southern Africa. It was the pursuit of this Confederation scheme that motivated some a British official named Henry Bartle Frere to start the Anglo-Zulu War. To execute his program of Confederation, Carnarvon appointed Frere High Commissioner for Southern Africa. Carnarvon, Frere and the supporters of Confederation encountered a great deal of resistance to their scheme from both British and Afrikaners. The Afrikaner republics showed little interest in Confederation. Similary, the elected Assembly and Prime Minister John Molteno of the British Cape Colony rejected calls for Confederation.
After failing to get white South African leaders to voluntarily accept Confederation, Carnarvon and Frere began to take a more heavy handed approach. In early 1877 the Afrikaner Republic of Transvaal was bankrupt and on the verge of collapse. Carnarvon used this as an opportunity to annex the republic. In 1877 a conflict arose between Frere, the Commissioner and Molteno, the Prime Minister of the Cape. Frere used his power to have Frere dismissed from office. In doing so, Frere removed one of the main opponents of Confederation.
Frere soon became convinced that the destruction of the Zulu Kingdom was the key to establishing a white South African Confederation. The Zulu Kingdom was the most populous and most militarily formidable black state in Southern Africa. Frere felt that conquering the Zulu would bring several benefits. First, the large Zulu population would become available to white employers after conquest. Secondly, Zulu military power was seen as a potential threat to the establishment of white rule. Conquest would remove that threat. Finally, Frere hoped that the destruction of the Zulu Kingdom would remove white objections to Confederation. The Afrikaners in Transvaal would be grateful for the conquest because it would end their ongoing border dispute with the Zulu. A more favourable attitude towards the British on the part of the Afrikaners would help the confederation operate more smoothly. It would also remove some of the Cape Colony’s objections to Confederation, because the cost of defending Natal would not be so high without the threat posed by the nearby Zulu Kingdom.
The Zulu Kingdom had been founded as a military state by Shaka. Shaka had established a system of conscription whereby young men were drafted into military regiments. Although the pre-Anglo-Zulu War reign of Cetshwayo and his predecessor Mpande had been peaceful, young Zulu men continued to be drafted into regiments and sent to military towns for training.
As the King of the Zulu, Cetshwayo did everything in his power to maintain good relations with the British, while still maintaining his kingdom’s independence. British South African statesman Theophilus Shepstone had supported Cetshwayo’s bid for kingship against his half-brother. Cetshwayo had gone as far as to invite Shepstone to play a formal role in his coronation. In addition, Cetshwayo employed a British trader named John Dunn to help provide him with advice on maintaining good relations with the British.
Frere was seeking to provoke a war with a ruler who was determined to avoid conflict with the British. Frere’s initial hope to provoke a war was a border conflict between the Transvaal Afrikaners and the Zulus. Cetshwayo requested, and eventually received, British arbitration of the dispute. Frere expected the decision to go against the Zulus. He believed that Cetshwayo would then be forced to go to war, rather then accept the decision and the resulting loss of prestige at home. This would provide a pretext for British military intervention. But the British arbitration court, which had been appointed by the Natal government, decided decisively in favour of the Zulus.
Now Frere needed to find a new pretext for war. This came in July 1878 when two adulterous wives of a Zulu sub-chief and their lovers fled retribution. A group of Zulus, including the brother and eldest son of the chief, chased the fugitives and caught them just across the border in Natal. The offending parties were taken back to Zulu territory and executed. Frere used this relatively minor incident as an excuse to send an ultimatum to the Zulu King. Frere demanded the surrender of the Zulus who had led the apprehension, as well as a large fine. He also demanded the demobilisation of the Zulu military and a permanent end to the Zulu system of conscription. Frere knew that these last two conditions would be impossible for Cetshwayo to comply with without destroying his own political rule and surrendering Zulu independence. Frere set a thirty day deadline for compliance with his demands. He was, in effect, asking Cetshwayo to dismantle a 50 year old social and political system in a month’s time.
It was obviously impossible for Cetshwayo to comply with Frere’s demands. Cetshwayo and his royal council decided to try to comply with as much of the ultimatum as possible without surrendering Zulu independence. Cetshwayo offered to hand over the men involved in the incident. He also asked for more time to collect the fine because at that time of the year rivers were flooded in the kingdom and communication was more difficult. Cetshwayo’s offer of partial compliance was rejected. When the ultimatum expired, British military forces invaded the Zulu kingdom. Cetshwayo prepared his army for defensive action. Cetshwayo hoped that if he could defeat the British invading forces, he would be able to convince them to negotiate. Zulu regiments were ordered not to cross the Natal border and not to attack British civilians. Zulu soldiers were told to only attack British soldiers who they would recognize by their distinctive red uniforms. Because of this order, several British military personnel avoided being killed because they were not wearing red uniforms.
The British invasion force was made up of three columns...
Read the entire article here
Two British officials were largely responsible for the Anglo-Zulu War. The first was the 4th Earl of Carnarvon, Henry Herbert, better known as Lord Carnarvon. Carnarvon was Secretary of State for the Colonies in the British government. In the 1870s, Southern Africa was still a patchwork of different political entities. Some, like the Cape and Natal, were British colonies. Others like Transvaal and Orange Free State were white Afrikaner republics. Many other areas were still under the control of African kingdoms, like those of the Zulu and the Pedi. Carnarvon hoped to create a Confederation of all the white states, both British and Afrikaner, of Southern Africa. It was the pursuit of this Confederation scheme that motivated some a British official named Henry Bartle Frere to start the Anglo-Zulu War. To execute his program of Confederation, Carnarvon appointed Frere High Commissioner for Southern Africa. Carnarvon, Frere and the supporters of Confederation encountered a great deal of resistance to their scheme from both British and Afrikaners. The Afrikaner republics showed little interest in Confederation. Similary, the elected Assembly and Prime Minister John Molteno of the British Cape Colony rejected calls for Confederation.
After failing to get white South African leaders to voluntarily accept Confederation, Carnarvon and Frere began to take a more heavy handed approach. In early 1877 the Afrikaner Republic of Transvaal was bankrupt and on the verge of collapse. Carnarvon used this as an opportunity to annex the republic. In 1877 a conflict arose between Frere, the Commissioner and Molteno, the Prime Minister of the Cape. Frere used his power to have Frere dismissed from office. In doing so, Frere removed one of the main opponents of Confederation.
Frere soon became convinced that the destruction of the Zulu Kingdom was the key to establishing a white South African Confederation. The Zulu Kingdom was the most populous and most militarily formidable black state in Southern Africa. Frere felt that conquering the Zulu would bring several benefits. First, the large Zulu population would become available to white employers after conquest. Secondly, Zulu military power was seen as a potential threat to the establishment of white rule. Conquest would remove that threat. Finally, Frere hoped that the destruction of the Zulu Kingdom would remove white objections to Confederation. The Afrikaners in Transvaal would be grateful for the conquest because it would end their ongoing border dispute with the Zulu. A more favourable attitude towards the British on the part of the Afrikaners would help the confederation operate more smoothly. It would also remove some of the Cape Colony’s objections to Confederation, because the cost of defending Natal would not be so high without the threat posed by the nearby Zulu Kingdom.
The Zulu Kingdom had been founded as a military state by Shaka. Shaka had established a system of conscription whereby young men were drafted into military regiments. Although the pre-Anglo-Zulu War reign of Cetshwayo and his predecessor Mpande had been peaceful, young Zulu men continued to be drafted into regiments and sent to military towns for training.
As the King of the Zulu, Cetshwayo did everything in his power to maintain good relations with the British, while still maintaining his kingdom’s independence. British South African statesman Theophilus Shepstone had supported Cetshwayo’s bid for kingship against his half-brother. Cetshwayo had gone as far as to invite Shepstone to play a formal role in his coronation. In addition, Cetshwayo employed a British trader named John Dunn to help provide him with advice on maintaining good relations with the British.
Frere was seeking to provoke a war with a ruler who was determined to avoid conflict with the British. Frere’s initial hope to provoke a war was a border conflict between the Transvaal Afrikaners and the Zulus. Cetshwayo requested, and eventually received, British arbitration of the dispute. Frere expected the decision to go against the Zulus. He believed that Cetshwayo would then be forced to go to war, rather then accept the decision and the resulting loss of prestige at home. This would provide a pretext for British military intervention. But the British arbitration court, which had been appointed by the Natal government, decided decisively in favour of the Zulus.
Now Frere needed to find a new pretext for war. This came in July 1878 when two adulterous wives of a Zulu sub-chief and their lovers fled retribution. A group of Zulus, including the brother and eldest son of the chief, chased the fugitives and caught them just across the border in Natal. The offending parties were taken back to Zulu territory and executed. Frere used this relatively minor incident as an excuse to send an ultimatum to the Zulu King. Frere demanded the surrender of the Zulus who had led the apprehension, as well as a large fine. He also demanded the demobilisation of the Zulu military and a permanent end to the Zulu system of conscription. Frere knew that these last two conditions would be impossible for Cetshwayo to comply with without destroying his own political rule and surrendering Zulu independence. Frere set a thirty day deadline for compliance with his demands. He was, in effect, asking Cetshwayo to dismantle a 50 year old social and political system in a month’s time.
It was obviously impossible for Cetshwayo to comply with Frere’s demands. Cetshwayo and his royal council decided to try to comply with as much of the ultimatum as possible without surrendering Zulu independence. Cetshwayo offered to hand over the men involved in the incident. He also asked for more time to collect the fine because at that time of the year rivers were flooded in the kingdom and communication was more difficult. Cetshwayo’s offer of partial compliance was rejected. When the ultimatum expired, British military forces invaded the Zulu kingdom. Cetshwayo prepared his army for defensive action. Cetshwayo hoped that if he could defeat the British invading forces, he would be able to convince them to negotiate. Zulu regiments were ordered not to cross the Natal border and not to attack British civilians. Zulu soldiers were told to only attack British soldiers who they would recognize by their distinctive red uniforms. Because of this order, several British military personnel avoided being killed because they were not wearing red uniforms.
The British invasion force was made up of three columns...
Read the entire article here
The history of the English language
History of the English Language
Scholars recognize 3 distinct stages in the development of the English language:
(1) Old English (formerly called Anglo-Saxon), 449-1066 or 1100
(2) Middle English, 1066 or 1100-1450 or 1500
(3) Modern English, 1450 or 1500-present
Modern English can be subdivided into Early Modern English (1500-1750), and Late Modern English 1750-present.
(1) Old English, 449-1066 or 1100
Old English was spoken by some Germanic groups in the area of what is now southern Denmark and northern Germany. These were the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. When these groups invaded and colonized Britain in the 5th century A.D., they brought their language with them. The Brythonic Celtic speakers were displaced. Brythonic Celtic survived only in the more remote parts of the Britain, such as Wales and Cornwall. The Celtic language of the pre-Anglo-Saxon inhabitants seems to have had relatively little influence on Old English. Most words of Celtic origin that are used in modern English are relatively recent additions to the English vocabulary.
Four major dialects of Old English are recognized: Kentish, which was spoken by the Jutes; West Saxon, the Saxon dialect of Wessex; and Northumbrian and Mercian, which were dialects of the Angles. In the 9th century, the Saxons of Wessex became the rulers of most of England. As a result, their dialect is the one often found in written documents from this period of time. The most famous example of Old English literature, however, was the epic poem Beowulf, which was written in Mercian.
Old English contained a number of words of Latin origin. Some of these words probably entered the language before the Angles, Saxons and Jutes settled England. Some others may have entered the language via Celtic people. The spread of Christianity, however, played the most important role in the bringing Latin vocabulary into Old English.
The other foreign source of vocabulary were the Scandinavian dialects of Norse invaders and settlers. The Norse ruled and colonized many areas of Britain during the 9th, 10th and early 11th centuries. A number of Scandinavian words entered the language during this period of time.
Old English was very different from Modern English. For a Modern English speaker, Old English would be completely unintelligible. The grammar of Old English was quite different from its modern counterpart. In Old English, for example, made grammatical distinctions for gender. This is no longer done in modern English.
(2) Middle English, 1066 or 1100-1450 or 1500
One of the most significant events in the development of the English language was the Norman conquest of 1066. The Normans were Norse invaders who had settled in northern France. They had adopted the French language of the local people. The dialect they spoke was called Norman French. When the Normans conquered England, they brought Norman French with them. This became the language of the ruling aristocracy. The common people, however, still spoke the Anglo-Saxon tongue. Many French terms were introduced into English during this period of time. Many of these terms were related to administration.
During the Middle English period, English grammar became simplified. This may be because the use of English became restricted to commoners. The formal Old English of the Saxon nobility was replaced by the French of the new Anglo-Norman aristocracy. The only English that was still used was the informal, colloquial English of the commoners.
(3) Modern English, 1450 or 1500-present
During the Modern English period, English began to resemble contemporary English. Documents written during this period are at least somewhat intelligible to today’s English speakers. During this period many words were borrowed from other European languages, such as Latin, Greek, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese. Colonial expansion brought many new words into the vocabulary.
Words of colonial origin include:
Raccoon from the Virginia Algonquian ‘aroughcun’.
Wigwam from the North American Algonquian language Abenaki ‘wikewam’.
Llama and quinine, from the South American language Quechua via Spanish.
Barbecue and cannibal from the Caribbean language Arawak.
Chimpanzee from the Central African language Kikongo via French.
Bandana from the Indian language Hindi via Portuguese.
Kangaroo and boomerang from Australian Aborigine languages.Read the entire article here
Scholars recognize 3 distinct stages in the development of the English language:
(1) Old English (formerly called Anglo-Saxon), 449-1066 or 1100
(2) Middle English, 1066 or 1100-1450 or 1500
(3) Modern English, 1450 or 1500-present
Modern English can be subdivided into Early Modern English (1500-1750), and Late Modern English 1750-present.
(1) Old English, 449-1066 or 1100
Old English was spoken by some Germanic groups in the area of what is now southern Denmark and northern Germany. These were the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. When these groups invaded and colonized Britain in the 5th century A.D., they brought their language with them. The Brythonic Celtic speakers were displaced. Brythonic Celtic survived only in the more remote parts of the Britain, such as Wales and Cornwall. The Celtic language of the pre-Anglo-Saxon inhabitants seems to have had relatively little influence on Old English. Most words of Celtic origin that are used in modern English are relatively recent additions to the English vocabulary.
Four major dialects of Old English are recognized: Kentish, which was spoken by the Jutes; West Saxon, the Saxon dialect of Wessex; and Northumbrian and Mercian, which were dialects of the Angles. In the 9th century, the Saxons of Wessex became the rulers of most of England. As a result, their dialect is the one often found in written documents from this period of time. The most famous example of Old English literature, however, was the epic poem Beowulf, which was written in Mercian.
Old English contained a number of words of Latin origin. Some of these words probably entered the language before the Angles, Saxons and Jutes settled England. Some others may have entered the language via Celtic people. The spread of Christianity, however, played the most important role in the bringing Latin vocabulary into Old English.
The other foreign source of vocabulary were the Scandinavian dialects of Norse invaders and settlers. The Norse ruled and colonized many areas of Britain during the 9th, 10th and early 11th centuries. A number of Scandinavian words entered the language during this period of time.
Old English was very different from Modern English. For a Modern English speaker, Old English would be completely unintelligible. The grammar of Old English was quite different from its modern counterpart. In Old English, for example, made grammatical distinctions for gender. This is no longer done in modern English.
(2) Middle English, 1066 or 1100-1450 or 1500
One of the most significant events in the development of the English language was the Norman conquest of 1066. The Normans were Norse invaders who had settled in northern France. They had adopted the French language of the local people. The dialect they spoke was called Norman French. When the Normans conquered England, they brought Norman French with them. This became the language of the ruling aristocracy. The common people, however, still spoke the Anglo-Saxon tongue. Many French terms were introduced into English during this period of time. Many of these terms were related to administration.
During the Middle English period, English grammar became simplified. This may be because the use of English became restricted to commoners. The formal Old English of the Saxon nobility was replaced by the French of the new Anglo-Norman aristocracy. The only English that was still used was the informal, colloquial English of the commoners.
(3) Modern English, 1450 or 1500-present
During the Modern English period, English began to resemble contemporary English. Documents written during this period are at least somewhat intelligible to today’s English speakers. During this period many words were borrowed from other European languages, such as Latin, Greek, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese. Colonial expansion brought many new words into the vocabulary.
Words of colonial origin include:
Raccoon from the Virginia Algonquian ‘aroughcun’.
Wigwam from the North American Algonquian language Abenaki ‘wikewam’.
Llama and quinine, from the South American language Quechua via Spanish.
Barbecue and cannibal from the Caribbean language Arawak.
Chimpanzee from the Central African language Kikongo via French.
Bandana from the Indian language Hindi via Portuguese.
Kangaroo and boomerang from Australian Aborigine languages.Read the entire article here
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