The causes of the Anglo-Zulu War

The Anglo-Zulu War of 1879 is probably best known for the famous Zulu victory over the British at the battle of Isandhlwana.  That victory sent shockwaves through the British Empire and helped solidify the reputation of the Zulus as a ‘warlike tribe’.  Ironically, however, the war was entirely the product of British aggression.  The Zulu King Cetshwayo, on the other hand, did everything in his power to prevent the war.  His efforts, however, were useless against British officials who were determined to crush the military power of South Africa’s most powerful African kingdom once and for all.

Two British officials were largely responsible for the Anglo-Zulu War.  The first was the 4th Earl of Carnarvon, Henry Herbert, better known as Lord Carnarvon.  Carnarvon was Secretary of State for the Colonies in the British government.  In the 1870s, Southern Africa was still a patchwork of different political entities.  Some, like the Cape and Natal, were British colonies.  Others like Transvaal and Orange Free State were white Afrikaner republics.  Many other areas were still under the control of African kingdoms, like those of the Zulu and the Pedi.  Carnarvon hoped to create a Confederation of all the white states, both British and Afrikaner, of Southern Africa.  It was the pursuit of this Confederation scheme that motivated some a British official named Henry Bartle Frere to start the Anglo-Zulu War.  To execute his program of Confederation, Carnarvon appointed Frere High Commissioner for Southern Africa.  Carnarvon, Frere and the supporters of Confederation encountered a great deal of resistance to their scheme from both British and Afrikaners.  The Afrikaner republics showed little interest in Confederation.  Similary, the elected Assembly and Prime Minister John Molteno of the British Cape Colony rejected calls for Confederation.

After failing to get white South African leaders to voluntarily accept Confederation, Carnarvon and Frere began to take a more heavy handed approach.  In early 1877 the Afrikaner Republic of Transvaal was bankrupt and on the verge of collapse.  Carnarvon used this as an opportunity to annex the republic.  In 1877 a conflict arose between Frere, the Commissioner and Molteno, the Prime Minister of the Cape.  Frere used his power to have Frere dismissed from office.  In doing so, Frere removed one of the main opponents of Confederation.

Frere soon became convinced that the destruction of the Zulu Kingdom was the key to establishing a white South African Confederation.  The Zulu Kingdom was the most populous and most militarily formidable black state in Southern Africa.  Frere felt that conquering the Zulu would bring several benefits.  First, the large Zulu population would become available to white employers after conquest.  Secondly, Zulu military power was seen as a potential threat to the establishment of white rule.  Conquest would remove that threat.  Finally, Frere hoped that the destruction of the Zulu Kingdom would remove white objections to Confederation.  The Afrikaners in Transvaal would be grateful for the conquest because it would end their ongoing border dispute with the Zulu.  A more favourable attitude towards the British on the part of the Afrikaners would help the confederation operate more smoothly.  It would also remove some of the Cape Colony’s objections to Confederation, because the cost of defending Natal would not be so high without the threat posed by the nearby Zulu Kingdom.

The Zulu Kingdom had been founded as a military state by Shaka.  Shaka had established a system of conscription whereby young men were drafted into military regiments.  Although the pre-Anglo-Zulu War reign of Cetshwayo and his predecessor Mpande had been peaceful, young Zulu men continued to be drafted into regiments and sent to military towns for training.

As the King of the Zulu, Cetshwayo did everything in his power to maintain good relations with the British, while still maintaining his kingdom’s independence.  British South African statesman Theophilus Shepstone had supported Cetshwayo’s bid for kingship against his half-brother.  Cetshwayo had gone as far as to invite Shepstone to play a formal role in his coronation.  In addition, Cetshwayo employed a British trader named John Dunn to help provide him with advice on maintaining good relations with the British.

Frere was seeking to provoke a war with a ruler who was determined to avoid conflict with the British.  Frere’s initial hope to provoke a war was a border conflict between the Transvaal Afrikaners and the Zulus.  Cetshwayo requested, and eventually received, British arbitration of the dispute.  Frere expected the decision to go against the Zulus.  He believed that Cetshwayo would then be forced to go to war, rather then accept the decision and the resulting loss of prestige at home.  This would provide a pretext for British military intervention.  But the British arbitration court, which had been appointed by the Natal government, decided decisively in favour of the Zulus.

Now Frere needed to find a new pretext for war.  This came in July 1878 when two adulterous wives of a Zulu sub-chief and their lovers fled retribution.  A group of Zulus, including the brother and eldest son of the chief, chased the fugitives and caught them just across the border in Natal.  The offending parties were taken back to Zulu territory and executed.  Frere used this relatively minor incident as an excuse to send an ultimatum to the Zulu King.  Frere demanded the surrender of the Zulus who had led the apprehension, as well as a large fine.  He also demanded the demobilisation of the Zulu military and a permanent end to the Zulu system of conscription.  Frere knew that these last two conditions would be impossible for Cetshwayo to comply with without destroying his own political rule and surrendering Zulu independence.  Frere set a thirty day deadline for compliance with his demands.  He was, in effect, asking Cetshwayo to dismantle a 50 year old social and political system in a month’s time.

It was obviously impossible for Cetshwayo to comply with Frere’s demands.  Cetshwayo and his royal council decided to try to comply with as much of the ultimatum as possible without surrendering Zulu independence.  Cetshwayo offered to hand over the men involved in the incident.  He also asked for more time to collect the fine because at that time of the year rivers were flooded in the kingdom and communication was more difficult.  Cetshwayo’s offer of partial compliance was rejected.  When the ultimatum expired, British military forces invaded the Zulu kingdom.  Cetshwayo prepared his army for defensive action.  Cetshwayo hoped that if he could defeat the British invading forces, he would be able to convince them to negotiate.  Zulu regiments were ordered not to cross the Natal border and not to attack British civilians.  Zulu soldiers were told to only attack British soldiers who they would recognize by their distinctive red uniforms.  Because of this order, several British military personnel avoided being killed because they were not wearing red uniforms.

The British invasion force was made up of three columns...  
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