Thursday, October 28, 2010

The rise of Africa's Songhai Empire

In the Western Sudan, three major African states flourished in the pre-colonial era.  The shadowy kingdom of Ghana, not to be confused with the modern Republic of Ghana, was the oldest of the three.  The Malinke Empire, made famous by the wealth of its legendary ruler Mansa Musa, succeeded Ghana (*see notes [1]).  The last of the great kingdoms of this region was the Songhai Empire, which flourished from the 15th to late 16th century.

The Songhai Empire was named for the Songhai people who founded it.  The Songhai traditionally lived along the Niger River in what is now the Republic of Niger and the Republic of Mali, as far west as Lake Debo.  Early in Songhai history, a town named Kukiya was established as the capital of the Songhai kingdom.  The first dynasty to rule the Songhai kingdom was the Dya dynasty.  As the Songhai kingdom became involved in the trans-Saharan trade, the town of Gao, north of Kukiya, emerged as an major trading center.  Because of the trans-Saharan trade, the Songhai kingdom became known to Arab writers, who referred it as “Kawkaw”.

In the 13th century the expanding Malinke Empire gained control over the town of Gao, thereby capturing the trade routes that formerly belonged to the Songhai.  The Songhai heartland eventually also came under Mandingo rule, although it was only a peripheral part of the empire.  The Songhai revolted around 1275 when the Malinke Empire was facing internal difficulties.  This revolt was led by a man named Ali Kolon (or Ali Golom).  He became the founder of a new Songhai dynasty, the Sunni dynasty, which replaced the former Dya dynasty.  From this time forward the title “Sunni” or “Shi” was adopted by succeeding members of the dynasty.  After enjoying a brief period of independence, however, the Songhai were reconquered by the Malinke.

By the beginning of the 15th century the Malinke Empire was again in a state of decline.  The eastern provinces, including the Songhai areas, slipped out of Malinke control.  Around 1420 the Songhai king Sunni Muhammad Da’o was powerful enough to raid territory that was still controlled by the declining Malinke Empire.  Songhai expansion began under Sunni Sulayman Dandi (or Salman Dama, died 1464), who conquered the kingdom of Mema.  Dandi’s successor was one of the most well-known Songhai rulers, Sunni Ali the Great (ruled 1464-1492).  Sunni Ali, also known as Ali Ber, is generally considered to be the founder of the Songhai Empire.  Sunni Ali led a series of military campaigns which expanded Songhai territory.  Early campaigns, from 1467-1470, focused on pacifying the Tuareg of the southern Sahara.  Sunni Ali later had to turn his attention to the Mossi kingdom of Yatenga to the south, which had been raiding the Niger River area.  Sunni Ali drove out the Mossi who had occupied the Baghana region in 1483.  Despite leading at least three separate expeditions against the Mossi, however, Sunni Ali was never able to completely remove this threat.

In the 1470s, Sunni Ali was able to capture the important trading town of Jenne (or Djenne).  From Jenne, Sunni Ali attacked the remnants of the Malinke Empire to the west.  These areas became tributaries of the Songhai Empire.  Other campaigns were fought against Fula and Dogon tribes.  Sunni Ali died on his way home from an expedition against the Fula.  The historical sources disagree on the circumstances of his death.  One scholar says that he ‘died suddenly’.  Another says he drowned in a flooded river; more recent historians find this implausible because his death occurred in the wrong season for a river to be flooded.  Oral traditions claim that Sunni Ali was assassinated by his nephew Mamar, the son of his sister Kassey.  These sources say that at the time, Mamar was a provincial governor.  Mamar would later go on to become Askia Muhammad I.

Sunni Ali was succeeded by his son Sunni Baru (or Abu Bakr Da’u).  Sunni Baru’s succession, however, was contested by the man who would become Askia Muhammad I.  The sources provide contesting accounts of Askia Muhammad’s ancestry.  Some sources, as mentioned above, claim that he was the nephew of Sunni Ali and the man who killed the former ruler.  Arabic sources say that his ancestors were from Sila or Futa Toro, which suggests that he was of either Soninke or Tukulor descent.

Askia Muhammad seems to have attempted to launch a coup against Sunni Baru.  When that failed, he managed to raise an army, with the support of at least one ranking general in the Empire.  Sunni Baru as raised an army.  Askia Muhammad’s forces prevailed in April 1493, making him the new ruler of the Empire.

As ruler, Askia Muhammad continued the military campaigns of...

Read the full article here

No comments:

Post a Comment